This issue is about an animal that has been keeping me awake for the last three weeks with its constant singing. So let’s do an issue on it! And if you want to request an issue on an amazing animal, fabulous fungus, perplexing plant, or awesome paleofauna, don’t hesitate to leave a request in the comments.

__________________________

Oddity Ark #104 (#284)

Domain: Eukaryota

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Aves

Order: Passeriformes

Family: Muscicapidae

Genus: Luscinia

Species: megarhynchos

Related Species: Common nightingales are one of the four species within the genus Luscinia. The genus Luscinia are one of the genera with the group known as ‘Old World flycatchers’ (1).

Range: Common nightingales are found across western Europe, down into the Mediterranean across Asia to the eastern foothills of the Himalayas.

IUCN Status: The common nightingale currently listed as ‘Least Concern’ on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

Midnight Song

Common nightingales are small songbirds with a body length of 16cm, and a wingspan of 24cm. Male and female nightingales are similar in size and colouration, with both sexes being brown, with a reddish flash on the tail. Nightingales prefer to live in forest edge habitat, and are active during day and night, with the majority of the singing being carried out at dusk and dawn. Common nightingales are migratory, breeding in Europe during the summer but overwinter in sub-Saharan Africa in a belt from Somalia in the west, to Senegal and Gambia in the west (2).

Common nightingales are primarily insectivorous, hunting prey on foot as well as occasionally hawking for insects in the air. The diet shift to a more omnivorous one in the autumn, feeding on berries as an additional energy source prior to migration. Common nightingales are predated upon by tawny owls (Strix aluco) with the owls having an impact on the song length and volume of males (3). When disturbed common nightingales emit a croaking alarm call before taking flight to evade predation.

Unpaired common nightingales call in summer between dusk and dawn to attract females to his territory. Singing has a high metabolic cost, partially due to the energy required for maintaining long periods of song, as well as increasing the risk of predation (4). The song itself a mixture of loud melodic trills, warbles and whistles, with songs typically louder in urban and sub-urban environments, when compared to woodland and scrub habitats. Mating is swift, and incubation of the clutch of up to five eggs take just over fourteen days (5). The chicks are fed and incubated by both parents and fledge within fourteen days of hatching, becoming sexually mature within at one year of age.

Wildlife in Folklore #10 – The Song of the Nightingale

Nightingales are very common birds in mythology, folklore, and literature, in part because of its melodious song, and in part because they are one of the few birds to sing at night. One of the first literary mentions of the bird, is in Homer’s Odyssey, which invokes the tragedy of Sophocles Tereus, where the titular character sexually assault his sister-in-law Philomela, who when defiantly stood up to the tyrant king, and had her tongue cut out (6). After weaving a message to her sister Procne, Procne got revenge by killing and cooking her child with Tereus, causing the sisters to flee when the king realised what they had done. To escape his wrath, the sisters prayed to the gods, with Procne being turned into a barn swallow (Hirundo rustica) and Philomela into a nightingale. To punish them, the gods also turned Tereus into a bird, in this case the Eurasian hoopoe (Upupa epeops), to pursue them, referencing the migratory nature of all three bird species.

This association of nightingales and tragedy in Greek literature is a trend when Cassandra of Troy associates the singing of the bird with her death, considering the song lamentation. Typically, the song is associated with female nightingales, and appears in the works of medieval poets such as Geoffery Chaucer and John Gower, typically referring to the song as mournful. The association from tragedy to romance began to change with Shakespeare’s Sonnet 102 where he compare’s his love songs with the singing of Philomel (7). Following Shakespeare, the romantics became a symbol of nature’s purity, creativity, virtue, and goodness.

The second flute within Beethoven’s Symphony 6 used to duplicate the whistles on a nightingale with other composers imitating the song of the bird, or directly sampling the song (8). The association with music is older than Beethoven, there has been a long association between nightingales and the purity of song in the Baha’i faith, with the bird being considered of the religions founder Baháʼu'lláh. Indeed, there are many Persian writings from the middle ages that describe the nightingale as a lover who is eloquent, passionate but doomed to love in vain (9), almost harking back to the lamentations the song was associated with in ancient Greek literature. The nightingale’s lover is said to be the rose, which is described as a symbol of perfect beauty and the arrogance that comes from that.

There is one country that has a deeper link to nightingales than Iran, and that is Ukraine. In one tale a nightingale visited Ukraine from India and heard the sad songs of the people and resolved to cheer them up with its song. Enthused the people sung happily back, and ever since the nightingales have returned to lift the spirits of the people every spring. Ukrainian poet Taras Hryhorvych Shevchenko, even made the comment that even the thought of nightingale song was enough to bring a smile to the people of Ukraine, even if just for a moment (10). This love of nightingales was enough to make it the national bird of Ukraine, and the term sсоловейко (nightingale in Ukranian) is still used as a sign of personal endearment in the country. Normally I don’t include actual works, just descriptions but circumstances of when ‘Cherry Orchard by the House’, a work by Teras describing nightingale song, was written are somewhat hauntingly relevant to the events happening in Ukraine at the moment.

A cherry orchard by the house.

Above the cherries beetles hum.

The plowmen plow the fertile ground

And girls sing songs as they pass by.

It’s evening—mother calls them home.

A family sups by the house.

A star shines in the evening chill.

A daughter serves the evening meal.

Time to give lessons—mother tries,

But can’t. She blames the nightingale.

It’s getting dark, and by the house,

A mother lays her young to sleep;

Beside them she too fell asleep.

All now went still, and just the girls

And nightingale their vigil keep. – Taras Shevchenko (1847)

Teras was arrested and then exiled shortly after writing ‘Cherry Orchard by the House’ for his role in fighting for Ukrainian independence in 1847 against Russia. Here’s hoping the song of the nightingale can keep singing in Ukraine as her people try and get some respite from a war that they did not ask for.

References

1. arkive.com
2. Wink, Michael (1973): " Die Verbreitung der Nachtigall (Luscinia megarhynchos) im Rheinland". Charadrius 9(2/3): 65-80.
3. Rothenberg, D. (2005) Why Birds Sing: A Journey Through the Mystery of Bird Song. New York: Basic Books.
4. Kunc, H., V. Amrhein, M. Naguib. (2005) Acoustic features of song categories and their possible implications for communication in the common nightingale (Luscinia megarhynchos). Behaviour, 142: 1083-1097.
5. Robinson, R. (2008) "BTO Birdfacts - Nightingale" (On-line). BirdFacts: profiles of birds occurring in Britain & Ireland.
6. Fitzpatrick, David (2001). "Sophocles' "Tereus"". The Classical Quarterly. 51 (1): 90–101
7. Hammond, Paul (2012). Shakespeare's Sonnets: An Original-Spelling Text. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 8
8. Jones, David W. (1996). Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 (Cambridge Music Handbooks). Cambridge University Press.
9. A'lam, Hushang (2012). "BOLBOL "nightingale"". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. IV. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 336–338
10. Bojanowska, Edyta M. (2018). Nikolai Gogol: Between Ukrainian and Russian Nationalism.

Picture Credits

1. Nightingale-surrounded-by-flowery-branches.jpg (1024×768) (critterfacts.com)
2. common-nightingale-mp.jpg (960×720) (kuwaitbirds.org)
3. tereus-344d6178-211a-4f29-b5af-50750afed29-resize-750.jpeg (720×505) (alchetron.com)
4. The-common-nightingale-is-the-Ukraines-national-animal.-This-one-is-holding-a-peace-flag-in-its-beak-–-as-a-sign-of-hope-for-the-end-of-the-war-2.jpg (1080×811) (streetartutopia.com)

Video Credits

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XdlIbNrki5o

Next week is probably something to do with beetles, if just for the joke a few lines down, something cheerful after that melancholic last note. And if you want to see more amazing animals and plants, please check out the Oddity Arkive or past issues. And if you want even more animals, please check out the dearly departed Impurest Cheese’s Guide to Animals, which can be found here or on the blog of the Sensational Songbird (and maybe the Magnificent MACH V) @ficopedia.

If you still have a yearning for learning, please check out the master list of Mr Monster’s Martial Arts Journey.

It couldn’t last could it, this week we go from the wholesome horseshoe crab to a far more toxic species. And if you want to request an issue on an amazing animal, fabulous fungus, perplexing plant, or awesome paleofauna, don’t hesitate to leave a request in the comments.

__________________________

Oddity Ark #103 (#283)

Domain: Eukaryota

Kingdom: Plantae

[Clade]: Tracheophytes

[Clade]: Angiosperms

Order: Apiales

Family: Apiaceae

Genus: Heracleum

Species: mantegazzianum

Related Species: Giant hogweed on of over eighty species within the genus Heracleum. The genus Heracleum is within a larger group of plants known as the umbellifers (1).

Range: Giant hogweed is native to wetland, ruderal and grassland habitat in the Caucuses mountain range. Giant hogweed is invasive in Europe, and has recently become established as a noxious weed in Canada and the United States.

IUCN Status: Giant hogweed currently listed as ‘Least Concern’ on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

Toxic Invasion

Giant hogweed is the largest of the umbellifers, growing to a mature height between 3-4m, with mature specimens occasionally reaching heights of 5.5m (2). The leaves of giant hogweed are large and have lobbed serrated edges, with an individual leaf reaching a width of 1.5m. The stems of giant hogweed resemble canes and are covered with small white hairs and purple blotches. These stems can reach 10cm in diameter and are hollow, and prone to breaking, oozing caustic sap. This sap is photonically activated, causing it to burn, and can cause painful blisters on exposed skin, and temporary blindness if it gets into the eyes of an animal.

Giant hogweed completes its life span in three years producing a flower head consisting of multiple white flowers. These flowers from an umbel with stems of equal length adjoining to the main stem. These umbels consist of up to 150 flowers, and can reach a width of up to 1m, and typically flower between June and July (3). Giant hogweeds are pollinated by a range of insects, including moths, butterflies, hoverflies, bees and soldier beetles. While they typically are pollinated by insects, on rare occasions the plant is capable of self-pollination.

After pollination each giant hogweed produces on average 20,000 oval seeds, which reach a length of up to 1cm (4). Each seed has two to four oil streaks, which can be used to identify smaller specimens once the plant has died after reproducing. Seeds are dispersed by wind or water and can travel significant distances from the parent plant. Upon reaching the soil, seeds require a period of frost stratification, with 90% of the seeds germinating in late winter, with the remainder of the seeds persisting in the seed bank (5). These seeds typically have short lifespans, only remaining viable for up to five years after being dispersed away from their parent plant.

Botanical Crime Families #3 – The Umbellifer Family

While giant hogweed may be the largest member of the umbellifer family, the features, particularly those regarding the hollow stem and flower umbel arrangement are found throughout the family. Additionally, the tenacity of plants within this family is another shared feature, when introduced into new environments umbellifers large and small quickly take over ruderal and wasteland habitats, forming seas of flowers, often outcompeting native species, including other native umbellifers.

The ‘Good’

Perhaps the most well-known of the umbellifers is wild carrot (Daucus carota), sometimes also referred to as Queen Ann’s lace, and its domestic cultivars. Carrots have been part of human diets since at least 2000 BCE, with seeds found in connection with settlements of a similar age in Germany (6). Cultivated carrots are harvested in large quantities, with over 40 million tonnes harvested per annum (as of 2022) (7). While the most famous of the edible umbellifers, other species such as wild parsnip (Anthriscus sylvestris), celery (Apium graveolens) and lovage (Levistecum officinale) are also species with edible roots, after cooking has occurred.

The use of umbellifers in cooking does not end with edible species, many umbellifers have aromatic foliage, and are commonly used as herbs. Plants such as coriander (Coriandrum sativum) and fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) among others are common ingredients in seasonings, and some such as anise (Pimipnella anisum) may also be used in incenses and essential oils. More obscure members of the family such as yareta (Azorella compacta), are beginning to be used as biofuel, although their slow growth rate makes the practice unsustainable (8).

The ‘Bad’

It would be incorrect to say that hemlock water dropwort (Oenanthe crocata) has no uses, its use as an arrow poison and an aid in committing suicide are not particularly healthy or useful. Hemlock water dropwort was a common poison used by the Nuragic people of Sardinia to incapacitate criminals and elderly people for execution, between the 18^th century BCE and the 23^rd century BCE (9). Remains of those poisoned by hemlock water dropwort, usually display a sardonic grin locked in place by the ataxia of the jaw muscles. Poisonings by hemlock water dropwort still occur, albeit are typically accidental, due to the similarity in regards to size, leaf size and shape and preferred habitat as wild parsnip.

Another toxic member of the family, poison hemlock (Conium maculatum) also is occasionally accidently ingested due to its similarity to wild carrot. Poison hemlock was the chosen execution method by a number of Athenian philosophers and statesmen, with the most well know of those to die due to this plants poison being Socrates, for his ‘crime’ of corrupting the youth of Athens with his impiety towards the Hellenic gods. Even had he somehow survived, Socrates would have suffered from ill health, ingestion of poison hemlock can causes necrosis of the kidneys and weakening of the skeletal muscles.

The ‘Toxic’

At this point we come back to a point mentioned in regards to giant hogweed in the main issue. The sap of giant hogweed is caustic when photonically activated and causes painful blistering on exposed skin that can last for weeks. Chemicals are activated in light and can even be activated by indoor lightning and on overcast days. Toxins with hogweed sap can remain on the skin for days, inactivated, even after the sap has been washed off, only to activate on exposure with high light levels. Due to the hollow stem, exposure with the sap is all too easy to come across, and the large size of the plant means at least part of it will be at eye level and can cause temporary blindness.

This caustic sap is a feature shared by all umbellifers including typically benign species such as fennel and carrot. Their aggressive nature, typically quick growth in both native and non-native environments can lead to fields being overtaken by umbellifers. Unsurprisingly the most toxic members of the family such as the hemlocks add poisons to there sap, increasing the risk they pose to both human and livestock health.

References

1. arkive.com
2. Stace, C.A. (2010). New Flora of the British Isles (third ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 450
3. Booy, Olaf; Cock, Matthew; Eckstein, Lutz; Hansen, Steen Ole; Hattendorf, Jan; Hüls, Jörg; Jahodová, Sárka; Krinke, Lucás; Marovoková, Lanka; Müllerová, Jana; Nentwig, Wolfgang; Nielsen, Charlotte; Otte, Annette; Pergl, Jan; Perglová, Irena; Priekule, Ilze; Pusek, Petr; Ravn, Hans Peter; Thiele, Jan; Trybush, Sviatlana; Wittenberg, Rüdiger (2005). The giant hogweed best practice manual: guidelines for the management and control of invasive weeds in Europe (PDF). Hørsholm: Center for Skov, Landskab og Planlægning/Københavns Universitet.
4. "Giant Hogweed Biology". New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. Retrieved September 1, 2018.
5. MacDonald, Francine; Anderson, Hayley (May 2012). "Giant Hogweed (Heracleum mantegazzianum): Best Management Practices in Ontario" (PDF). Ontario Invasive Plant Council, Peterborough, ON.
6. Rubatsky, V. E.; Quiros, C. F.; Siman, P. W. (1999). Carrots and Related Vegetable Umbelliferae. CABI Publishing
7. Carrot (*and turnip) production in 2022, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2022.
8. Ralph, Carol P. (1978). "Observations on Azorella compacta (Umbelliferae)". Biotropica. 10 (1): 62 plus photo p. 63. doi:10.2307/2388107. JSTOR 2388107.
9. Owen, James (2009-06-02). "Ancient Death-Smile Potion Decoded?". National Geographic

Picture Credits

1. OIP.fGPN9rncAvG5bqB8X0o4cgHaFj (474×355) (bing.com)
2. Gianthogweed_USDA.jpg (401×550) (nps.gov)
3. 14476361370_f828f61bde_b.jpg (1024×842) (staticflickr.com)
4. yareta-9%255B6%255D.jpg (790×526) (ggpht.com)
5. the-mysterious-phoenician-legend-of-the-sardonic-grin.jpg (943×1200) (saymedia-content.com)
6. 0_Hogweed-arm.jpg (1200×630) (mirror.co.uk)

Next week we’ll be diving into the other (wildlife) bane of my life (at the moment). And if you want to see more amazing animals and plants, please check out the Oddity Arkive or past issues. And if you want even more animals, please check out the dearly departed Impurest Cheese’s Guide to Animals, which can be found here or on the blog of @ficopedia (who is guaranteed to be lean, mean and full of beta-carotene).

If you still have a yearning for learning, please check out the master list of Mr Monster’s Martial Arts Journey.

Blue mist swirls around a hill with an olive tree growing out of the summit, the tops of buildings visible through the fog.

Narrator: This city is forsaken.

Cut to a woman running through an alleyway shadowed in darkness, looking up and behind her as something large and only vaguely humanoid leaps across the street, pursuing her from above.

Narrator: Death comes for the strong...

Cut to Freight Train being slammed in the back by a woman wearing military fatigues riding on a hovering saw blade.

Narrator: the weak...

Cut to a student with a satchel filled with posters being held at knife point by a figure wearing a Romanesque armour and a helmet.

Narrator: the good...

Cut to Diver blocking the blow of a blonde-haired woman dressed in plate mail, armed with a halberd, before he retaliates with a burst of electricity.

Narrator: and the bad.

Cut to Peacekeeper, armed with a missile launcher, suddenly illuminated by a search light from a pair of helicopters hovering above her.

Mysterious Voice: It’s time, my little faun...

Cut to a female faun-like carrier dancing in a nightclub as four dark figures dressed in black ballistic armour encircle her from the crowd.

Cut to a wooden hand reaching out from an olive tree and caressing Peacekeeper’s cheek,

Mysterious Voice: Welcome to the Bacchanalia, the party at the end of the world.

Cut to Wind Duster teleporting away just as a throwing axe glowing with blue energy flies towards him.

Cut to the faun-like carrier on an aeroplane as a swarm of blights crawls towards her while her fellow passengers try and open the emergency exit.

Cut to Peacekeeper holding her shoulder as something begins growing in a wound on her arm.

Cut to a blast of sound throwing a transport truck leading a convoy through the city.

Mysterious Voice: Are you in attendance?

Cut to Peacekeeper and Diver dashing through a laboratory space, bullet fire ripping through the glass window.

Impurest Cheese presents

Cut to Peacekeeper, and Torres is greeted by a platoon of armed CBTF agents as they exit a building into a fairground.

Peacekeeper

Cut to Peackeeper standing on a glass floor that smashes as a rocket hits it, sending her into the water below.

Mysterious Voice: They are all here. The maiden…

Cut to the faun-like character cowering as a figure standing in the shadows, armed with a sabre, looms over her.

Mysterious Voice: the mother…

Cut to Peacekeeper lying on the floor, screaming in pain as her armour begins to crack on her back.

Cut to a Terra Solei dressed in green sitting in a thorne carved from an olive tree.

Terra: the crone. Now let this dread Persephone be cast back to the abyss.

Cut to Peacekeeper with a chain on her leg being dragged underwater by something with a fish-like tail.

Peacekeeper

Arc 1: Rise of the Response coming soon…

An ancient looking creature from admittedly not so long ago graces this blog with its adorable presence. And if you want to request an issue on an amazing animal, fabulous fungus, perplexing plant, or awesome paleofauna, don’t hesitate to leave a request in the comments.

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Oddity Ark #102 (#282)

Domain: Eukaryota

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Arthropoda

[Clade]: Prosomapoda

Order: Xiphosura

Family: Limulidae

Genus: Limulus

Species: polyphemus

* Prosmapoda is a group of arthropods including arachnids, eurypterids and horseshoe crabs characterized by external exopods.

Related Species: The Atlantic horseshoe crab is one of four extant members of Xiphosura, the others being the mangrove horseshoe crab (Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda), Indonesian horseshoe crab (Tachypleus tridentatus) and Chinese horseshoe crab (T. gigas) (1).

Range: Atlantic horseshoe crabs live off the coast of North America, ranging from Maine in the north, down to the Gulf of Mexico to the south.

IUCN Status: The Atlantic horseshoe crab currently listed as ‘Vulnerable on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

Please flip me back over!

Atlantic horseshoe crabs are large arachnids, reaching a length of up to 60cm, and a weight of 4.8kg, with females being larger than males of a similar age. Horseshoe crabs have a domed carapace that protect the ten pairs of legs, gizzard and book gills on the underside of the animal. A pair of large compound eyes is located on the dorsal side of the carapace, with five more simple eyes scattered around the edge of the carapace and an additional pair of eyes around the mouth, giving the horseshoe crab the ability to see around its body (2). In addition to these eyes, the horseshoe crab has a patch of light sensitive cells at the base of the sword like tail, known as the telson. The telson is used as a rudder to propel the horseshoe crab when it swims in the water current, and to help self-right itself when flipped over by the waves. While typically moving along the seabed, the Atlantic horseshoe crab is capable of swimming, paddling upside down with its legs, typically at a 30° angle.

Atlantic horseshoe crabs are bottom feeders, feeding on molluscs, polychaete worms and crustaceans, as well as scavenging on carrion they come across. Upon coming on prey, the Atlantic horseshoe crab grabs a food item with the claws on its feet, grinding the food with the bristles, before being passed to the gizzard. Within the gizzard the food is further ground down by sand, gravel and grit contained inside to aid in digestion (3). Adult Atlantic horseshoe crabs are fed upon by tiger sharks (Gelocerdo cuvier), loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) and horse conches (Triplofusus giganteus), while the eggs and larval Atlantic horseshoe crabs are an important food source for wading birds, such as red knot (Calidris canutus) (4).

Atlantic horseshoe crabs make their way into shallow water in early June where they await the correlation of both the spring tide and full moon. Making their way up the shoreline, the female horseshoe crabs dig a pit to lay their eggs in, with the males crawling up after them to fertilizing the eggs, latching on to the female’s carapace with a boxing glove esque clasper to maintain purchase. During mating horseshoe crabs may get flipped over, and while they can right themselves, they struggle to do so on land and may need human intervention to get back to the ocean. The eggs hatch twenty days after being fertilised in concert with the following spring tide to allow them to reach the ocean more willingly (5). Atlantic horseshoe crabs shed their shells to grow, with younger individuals staying closer to the shoreline until they are large enough to survive in deeper waters. Atlantic horseshoe crabs reach sexual maturity at nine years of age and have an average lifespan of twenty to forty years.

Spotlight #8 – The Medical Mystery of the Horseshoe Crab

It’s very likely that the Atlantic horseshoe crab has saved the life of everyone who reads this issue. But before we get into that we need to talk about a key physiological trait of the four extant horseshoe crab species is that the oxygen receptor of their blood cells is copper based. This hemocyanin is different from the iron-based receptor haemoglobin found in vertebrate blood and tints the blood plasma blue. Within this blue blood, are amebocytes, the horseshoe crab’s equivalent to white blood cells that detect and neutralize bacterial infections in vertebrate animals. The detection abilities of these amebocytes, in regards to endotoxins produced by bacteria, are highly accurate, and as such have attracted the attentions of medical science (6).

To that end, Atlantic horseshoe crabs are harvested during the breeding season and taken to laboratories for bloodletting, being held for days, while up to 30% of their blood is drained. Mortality is relatively high, between 5-15% in males, and up to 29% in females, with mortality rates increasing in concert with time out of the water and amount of blood drained (7). Once harvested, the blood is centrifuged and the amebocyte is extracted, the blood is applied in an aqueous form to batches of chemical. If contamination by gram negative bacteria has occurred, the amebocyte rapidly clots, allowing quick identification, allowing for easier processing then previous methods (8).

The ameboyte, typically Limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL), is used for testing batches of pharmaceuticals and vaccines. By reducing the risk of contamination, and the time taken to test for contamination, pharmaceuticals and vaccines were able to be synthesised faster than when the test for endotoxins involved injecting batches of vaccines into rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and waiting for symptoms related to develop. This quick processing, increased the harvesting rate of Atlantic horseshoe crabs and has contributed to the IUCN’s classification of the species as ‘Vulnerable’ and also contributed to the ‘endangered’ status of the Chinese horseshoe crab.

The harvesting and blood letting of horseshoe crabs challenges the Three Rs (Replacement, Reproduction and Refinement) of science in relation to animal testing (9). A development of a synthetic recombinant protein that has higher sensitivity has been created, but adoption has been slow, despite approval by the US FDA and the European Health Ministry and the patent expiring in 2018 without renewal. Harvesting of Atlantic horseshoe crabs reached a peak in 2020-22 in concert with the Covid Pandemic and has likely had a negative impact on the species, due to the use of amebocytes in vaccine trials.

References

1. arkive.com
2. Battelle, B.A. (2006). "The eyes of Limulus polyphemus (Xiphosura, Chelicerata) and their afferent and efferent projections". Arthropod Structure & Development. 35 (4): 261–274.
3. Angier, Natalie (2008). "Tallying the Toll on an Elder of the Sea". The New York Times.
4. Juliet Eilperin (2005). "Horseshoe Crabs' Decline Further Imperils Shorebirds (subtitle: Mid-Atlantic States Searching for Ways to Reverse Trend)". The Washington Post. p. A03
5. Leschen, A. S.; et al. (2006). "Fecundity and spawning of the Atlantic horseshoe crab, Limulus polyphemus, in Pleasant Bay, Cape Cod, Massachusetts, USA". Marine Ecology. 27 (1): 54–65.
6. Zhang S (9 May 2018). "The Last Days of the Blue-Blood Harvest". The Atlantic.
7. Chesler C. "Medical Labs May Be Killing Horseshoe Crabs". Scientific American
8. Iwanaga S (2007). "Biochemical principle of Limulus test for detecting bacterial endotoxins". Proceedings of the Japan Academy. Series B, Physical and Biological Sciences. 83 (4): 110–9.
9. Gorman, Richard (2020). "Atlantic Horseshoe Crabs and Endotoxin Testing: Perspectives on Alternatives, Sustainable Methods, and the 3Rs (Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement)". Frontiers in Marine Science.
10. Maloney T, Phelan R, Simmons N (October 2018). "Saving the horseshoe crab: A synthetic alternative to horseshoe crab blood for endotoxin detection". PLOS Biology. 16 (10)

Picture Credits

1. R.6c0ca033b4e04cca727dc282ecd22996 (1280×853) (bing.com)
2. R.a552aaf8b13ad7c97bd706cb310a961b (750×499) (bing.com)
3. OIP.wcSqiPQ5BKl-GEm_He4ddQHaF6 (474×378) (bing.com)
4. Amebocytes.jpg (720×480) (ucsf.edu)
5. Feature.jpg (960×524) (defenders.org)

Next week we go from an unexpected saviour to the biggest and meanest of a criminal pack of vegetables. And if you want to see more amazing animals and plants, please check out the Oddity Arkive or past issues. And if you want even more animals, please check out the dearly departed Impurest Cheese’s Guide to Animals, which can be found here or on the blog of @ficopedia (thanks for being around, you don’t know how much it meant over the last few days).

If you still have a yearning for learning, please check out the master list of Mr Monster’s Martial Arts Journey.

We’re moving on to Issue 101, with a big bite and an armoured back. And if you want to request an issue on an amazing animal, fabulous fungus, perplexing plant, or awesome paleofauna, don’t hesitate to leave a request in the comments.

__________________________

Oddity Ark #101 (#281)

Domain: Eukaryota

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

[Clade]*: Archosauromorpha

Order: Crocodilia

Family: Crocodylidae

Genus: Crocodylus

Species: rhombifer

* Due to the reclassification of Archosauromorpha; including both birds and crocodilians the cladistics of the group is currently being reorganized.

Related Species: The Cuban crocodile is one of the four American members of the genus Crocodylus, the others being the American crocodile (C. acutus), the Morelet’s crocodile (C. moreletii) and the Orinoco crocodile (C. intermedius) (1).

Range: The current range of the Cuban crocodile is limited to the Zapata swamp of Cuba and the offshore island of Isla de la Juventud. Fossil remains of the species have been found on multiple other Caribbean Islands including the Dominican Republic, Hispaniola and the Bahamas.

IUCN Status: The Cuban crocodile currently listed as ‘Critically Endangered’ on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

Comrade Crocodile

Cuban crocodiles are medium sized crocodilians, reaching an average length of 2.5m and a weight of 90kg, although due to the ability to continue growing throughout their lives, large specimens reaching lengths of 3.5m and weights of over 200kg have been recorded (1). Like all extant crocodilians, including the distantly related alligators and caimans, the Cuban crocodile lives primarily in shore-side habitat, but is the most terrestrial extant member of the order Crocodilia. Cuban crocodiles exhibit partial adaptations to terrestrial habitats with reduced webbing on the back feet, and no webbing on the front feet to allow for easier terrestrial locomotion. When moving on terrestrial habitats, Cuban crocodiles adopt a ‘high walk stance’ with the legs held close to the flank and their belly lifted off the ground. While stamina when moving on terrestrial habitats is typically less than a similarly sized mammal or bird, Cuban crocodiles, like all modern crocodilians have a four-chambered heart, something that no other extant group of reptiles possesses. The respiration of the Cuban crocodile, and by extension all other extant crocodilians, is unidirectional akin to the system found in birds, suggesting that crocodilians are more closely related to them then other extant groups of reptiles (3).

Despite their more terrestrial foot structure, Cuban crocodiles are still ambush predators operating from shore-line habitats. Prey items such as birds, small mammals and fish are often taken, and the Cuban crocodile does feed upon freshwater turtles, using the large blunt teeth at the back of its jaw to crush their shells, making them easier to swallow. There have been some suggestions that Cuban crocodiles occasionally exhibit true co-operative hunting behaviours (4), although further study is required. Adult Cuban crocodiles have no natural predators, despite living alongside the larger American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) and is behaviourally dominant other its larger relative. Cuban crocodiles have been witnessed playing with items such as copper piping and cinder blocks in captivity (5).

Cuban crocodiles mate between May and June, with males uttering deep infrasound calls to attract the female, and blowing bubbles at her before mating. Female Cuban crocodiles dig trenches before laying up to 50 eggs and then covering them up and guarding the nest until the eggs hatch 70 days later. The sex of the hatchlings is dependent on nest temperature during incubation, with eggs that reach a temperature of 32°C (89.6°F) or above developing into males (6). Cuban crocodile hatchlings are predated by a wide range of species, primarily humans (Homo sapiens), raccoons (Procyon lotor) and adult Cuban and American crocodiles.

Five Fun Cuban Crocodile Facts

While the Cuban crocodile has been recorded as being aggressive, there is currently only one recorded fatality from this species.

Two Cuban crocodiles, Castro and Hillary, were gifted to the Russian cosmonaut Vladimir Shatalov, by their former owner Fidel Castro in 1978, before being gifted to the Skansen Aquarium in Sweden in 1981 (7).

Fossil bones of the giant ground sloths Megalocnus have been found with the bite marks that match the dentition of large Cuban crocodiles.

Cuban crocodiles grow slowly due to reduced prey levels, combined with human hunting and higher than normal cases of juvenile cannibalism have contributed to the species endangerment.

Hybrids of the American crocodile and the Cuban crocodile occur with approximately 49% of wild Cuban crocodiles exhibiting hybrid characteristics (8).

References

1. arkive.com
2. Palmer, Jamie L.; Nieto-Claudín, Ainoa; Rodriguez, Gustavo Sosa; Fleitas, Etiam Perez; Augustine, Lauren; Deem, Sharon L. (July 2023). "Hematology and Blood Chemistry Values in Cuban Crocodiles (Crocodylus Rhombifer) Housed at the Zapata Swamp Crocodile Farm, Cuba". Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine. 54 (2): 301–309
3. Farmer, C. G.; Sanders, K. (2010). "Unidirectional airflow in the lungs of alligators" (PDF). Science. 327 (5963): 338–340.
4. Alexander, Marc (2006-01-01). "Last of the Cuban crocodile?". Americas (English Edition). Organization of American States. ISSN 0379-0940. Retrieved 2010-07-09.
5. Murphy J, Evans M, Augustine L and Miller K (2016) Behaviours in the Cuban Crocodile (Crocodylus rhombifer), Herpetological Review, 2016, 47(2), 235–240.
6. Ramos Taragon, R. S. (2010). Cuban crocodile (Crocodylus rhombifer). In S. M. C.Stevenson, Crocodiles Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan (pp. 114-118). Crocodile Specialist Group : Darwin
7. Amy Woodyatt (2019). "Fidel Castro's crocodile bites man at aquarium party". CNN. Retrieved 2019-08-24
8. Weaver, J. P.; Rodriguez, D.; Venegas-Anaya, M.; Cedeño-Vázquez, J. R.; Forstner, M. R. J.; Densmore, L. D. III (2008). "Genetic characterization of captive Cuban crocodiles (Crocodylus rhombifer) and evidence of hybridization with the American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus)". Journal of Experimental Zoology Part A: Ecological Genetics and Physiology. 309A (10): 649–660

Picture Credits

1. OIP.gdC1mMF6FJESEdvtYrJo9AHaE6 (474×314) (bing.com)
2. image.jpg (1198×627) (drb960u7vv58y.cloudfront.net)
3. maxresdefault.jpg (1280×720) (ytimg.com)
4. The-Cuban-Crocodile.jpg (460×313) (reptilefact.com)

5. R.ceae3b5d9fa69331a22565a0da3dd025 (500×344) (bing.com)

Next week, we’re heading up north to meet an animal that likely has saved your life without you ever knowing it. And if you want to see more amazing animals and plants, please check out the Oddity Arkive or past issues. And if you want even more animals, please check out the dearly departed Impurest Cheese’s Guide to Animals, which can be found here or on the blog of utter crock @ficopedia.

If you still have a yearning for learning, please check out the master list of Mr Monster’s Martial Arts Journey.

It’s here, Issue 100. At this point, we are eighty issues past where I planned to go with this. As we leave the beginning of the beginning, rest assured that the Ark will be making a lot more stops as we pick up new issues. And if you want to request an issue on an amazing animal, fabulous fungus, perplexing plant, or awesome paleofauna, don’t hesitate to leave a request in the comments.

__________________________

Oddity Ark #100 (#280)

Domain: Eukaryota

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Primates

Family: Hominidae

Genus: Pan

Species: troglodytes

Related Species: The closest living relative to the chimpanzee is the bonobo (Pan paniscus). Together with the two species in the genus Gorilla and humans (Homo sapiens) they form the tribe Homininae, also referred to as ‘the African Apes’ (1).

Range: Chimpanzees are found in the belt of tropical rainforest across equatorial Africa, ranging from Tanzania in the east to Senegal and Guinea-Bissau in the west.

IUCN Status: Chimpanzees are currently listed as ‘Endangered’ on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

All in the Family

Chimpanzees are one of the larger extant members of the great ape family, only smaller than the two species in the genus Gorilla and Homo sapiens, with an adult male standing 150cm and reaching a maximum weight of 70kg. Like most extant apes, chimpanzees are social animals, typically living in groups of 15 to 150 individuals. Adapted to both arboreal and terrestrial locomotion, chimpanzees primarily move in a bipedal manner in the former environment and a quadrupedal one in the latter, although they are capable of walking and running bipedally on the ground when necessary. As an adaptation to arboreal living chimpanzees have a higher percentage of fast-twitch muscles in their hands, giving them a grip strength of approximately 200kg, approximately 50% higher than humans of a similar age (2).

While omnivorous, the majority of the chimpanzee’s diet is frugivorous, with 64% of their diet consisting of fruits (3). Animal prey is also taken, with some prey items such as yellow baboons (Papio cynocephalus), blue duikers (Philantomba monticola), and common warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) being sizable. Hunting is typically undertaken as a pack, with ‘blockers’ cutting off escape routes with other individuals acting as chasers, pushing prey to chimpanzees waiting in ambush to capture and kill the prey item. While most prey items are ripped apart, some communities have started hunting with sticks sharpened by the chimpanzees’ teeth to hunt concealed prey such as Senegal bushbabies (Galago senegalensis) when hiding in areas typically unreachable by the bigger primate (4). Tool use is also applied when gathering honey, with the chimpanzees using different length and width sticks depending on the aggressiveness of the bee nests they were raiding. Chimpanzees have few predators, with leopards (Panthera pardus) being the most consistent predator, although attacks are typically carried out at night upon sleeping prey to reduce potential retaliation.

Chimpanzee troops are typically patriarchies, with a linear hierarchy from the largest, most aggressive male through younger males and then down to females and juvenile animals. While the largest male is usually dominant, male chimpanzees sometimes form coalitions to dominate individuals they usually couldn’t and boost their own standing by presenting a united front against rivals. Female chimpanzees are not above forming their own coalitions against males to secure more dominant positions within the troop (5). Coalitions are fragile, however, and may break down if a party within the coalition feels it would be more advantageous to form new alliances or destroy old ones.

While mating occurs throughout the year, females upon entering a reproductive season, do so more readily when food is plentiful. Both sexes engage in promiscuous mating with multiple partners, and while the more dominant male may restrict breeding for other males, chimpanzees have been recorded leaving their established territory to mate before returning to the troop. While copulation is short, approximately seven seconds (6), gestation is relatively long, with females pregnant for eight months. Females are the primary care givers, although male chimpanzees do interact with and support females they mated with (7). Baby chimpanzees typically don’t break physical contact with their mothers in the first year of life and are only able to sit and move independently beyond their mother’s arm span when they reach two years of age. Chimpanzees remain juveniles until they reach nine years of age, when they reach sexual maturity.

Anatomy of an Attack #8 - Ape shall kill Ape

While it is tempting to talk about the many aggressive encounters between chimpanzees and humans in both wild and captive settings, there is another encounter involving chimpanzees I wanted to talk about, one that lasted for four years and changed the scientific perspective on chimpanzee behaviour. Before we get into the event known as ‘The Four Years War’, not to be confused with the Italian Wars between 1521 to 1526, we need to know about the community of chimpanzees living in Gombe Stream National Park in Tanzania. At the start of the war, a single community, the Kasakela, lived in the National Park, ruled by the troop’s leader, an individual named by the observing anthropologist, one Jane Goodall, as Mike.

As he aged, Mike’s grip began to weaken, and a coalition of six males began to schism, preferring to live in the southern area of the troop’s territory (8). As the schism became more noticeable, this new troop, the Kahama, began raiding their former family’s territory, although conflict was usually relegated to noisy shouting matches. Despite the increasing aggression, some friendly ties remained between the Kasakela and the Kahama, with Mike and another older Kasakela male Rodolf maintaining good connections with the Kahama male Goliath. Despite the increasing aggression over the past two years, none of the humans observing the chimpanzees believed that the conflict would go from essentially a border skirmish to a full-fledged war (9).

The Kasakela would draw first blood on January 7, 1974, with six Kasaklea males ambushing a Kahama male, named Godi, as he was feeding peacefully in a tree. Despite trying to flee, Godi was sized by the Kasaklea males, thrown out of the tree, and beat him with bare fists, stones, and tree branches until he couldn’t move. After much boisterous celebration, the Kasakela party left, and Godi stood up and limped away but succumbed to his wounds later that day. This act of murder was shocking; nobody had witnessed chimpanzees attempt to kill one of their own, not just in Gombe but throughout the species entire range until that day (10). Godi may have been the first death witnessed by the watching anthropologists, but he wouldn’t be the last. Another Kahama male, De, was ambushed in the same way, dying of wounds inflicted during the attack.

What little peace there had been ended when the elderly Goliath of the Kahama stepped in. Looking to make peace with his former allies Rodolf and Mike, Goliath was ambushed and was attacked with a furiosity unmatched by the previous attacks, with one Kasaklea male almost twisting Goliath’s leg off in an attempt to dismember him (9). With Goliath dead, three Kahama males remained; Charlie, Sniff, and Willy Wally, the latter essentially a non-combatant due to his ongoing fight against polio (9). What happened to Charlie was unknown; sounds of a fight could be heard, and his corpse showed all the signs of a beating when fishermen found the body three days later. While we don’t know what became of Willy Wally, he went missing shortly after Charlie’s death. With the males of the Kahama reduced down to one, the females of the troop were next to be targeted, with an elderly female, Madame Bee, found dead suffering from terrible wounds. Madame Bee may have been the lucky one; however, three of the other females were dragged back to Kasaklea territory.

Alone Sniff, the last member of the Kahama, survived on his own for a year, with anthropologists hoping that the conflict was over, that another troop would accept him, only for the Kasaklea to find him and finish what they had started. With their territory reclaimed, the Kasaklea soon found themselves in simultaneous conflict with the Kalande and the Mitumba, neighbouring troops of chimpanzees. With Sniff’s death in 1978, the Kasaklea had 15 square kilometres of territory, but after three years of conflict with their new rivals, this had shrunk down to 5 square kilometres, not enough to feed every member of the troop, necessitating more peaceful relations to be sought with their neighbours.

At the time of the ongoing conflict, many accused Jane Goodall of anthropomorphizing the chimpanzees, with the belief held that humans and animals behaved very differently (11). Indeed, before the conflict had started, Goodall herself held the belief that chimpanzees were like people but were generally ‘nicer’ in their behaviour to each other than humans. With the conclusion of the four-year war, Goodall’s perspective changed, and I think she can say it with more poetry than I;

For several years, I struggled to come to terms with this new knowledge. Often when I woke in the night, horrific pictures sprang unbidden to my mind—Satan [one of the apes], cupping his hand below Sniff's chin to drink the blood that welled from a great wound on his face; old Rodolf, usually so benign, standing upright to hurl a four-pound rock at Godi's prostrate body; Jomeo tearing a strip of skin from Dé's thigh; Figan, charging and hitting, again and again, the stricken, quivering body of Goliath, one of his childhood heroes. – Jane Goodall in her memoir Through a Window: My Thirty Years with the Chimpanzees of Gombe.

While Goodall’s own interference was initially blamed for the conflict, it was later discovered that human encroachment is a minor, if not negligible, initiator of chimpanzees going to war with each other, Indeed, it appears internal power struggle over territory and available fertile females is the main reason that chimpanzees choose to go to war (12). While war may be the most monsterous artform associated with humans, it appears to harken back to at least our last common ancestor with chimpanzees and bonobos. Warfare and violence against the outgroup is part of our evolutionary path, tempered only by our ability to empathise with not just our immediate family and friends, but strangers across the other side of the world. So next time we feel the urge to attack someone for their beliefs, their sexuality, skin colour, age, religion (or lack thereof), or gender, take a long look in the mirror, and decide what animal is staring back at you.

References

1. arkive.com
2. O'Neill, M. C.; Umberger, B. R.; Holowka, N. B.; Larson, S. G.; Reiser, P. J. (2017). "Chimpanzee super strength and human skeletal muscle evolution". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114(28): 7343–7348
3. Newton-Fisher, N. E. (1999). "The diet of chimpanzees in the Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda". African Journal of Ecology. 37(3): 344–354
4. J (2015) "Female chimps seen making, wielding spears". Discovery
5. Newton-Fisher, N. E. (2006). "Female coalitions against male aggression in wild chimpanzees of the Budongo Forest". International Journal of Primatology. 27(6): 1589–1599
6. Dixson, A. F. (2012). Primate Sexuality: Comparative Studies of the Prosimians, Monkeys, Apes, and Humans. OUP Oxford#
7. Murray, C. M.; Stanton, M. A.; Lonsdorf, E. V.; Wroblewski, E. E.; Pusey, A. E. (2016). "Chimpanzee fathers bias their behaviour towards their offspring". Royal Society Open Science. 3(11): 160441.
8. Frankenberry, Nancy K.(2008). The Faith of Scientists: In Their Own Words. Princeton University Press.
9. Goodall, Jane(2010) Through a Window: My Thirty Years with the Chimpanzees of Gombe. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
10. Morris, Ian(2014). War! What Is It Good For?: The Role of Conflict and the Progress of Civilisation from Primates to Robots. MacMillan.
11. Bradshaw, G. A. (2009). Elephants on the Edge: What Animals Teach Us about Humanity. Yale University Press. p. 40
12. Nature of war: Chimps inherently violent; Study disproves theory that 'chimpanzee wars' are sparked by human influence". ScienceDaily., September 2014.

Picture Credits

1. OIP.KkH0SbPzegMeAX_wdwyM_wHaJ4 (474×632) (bing.com)
2. chimp.jpg (2048×1536) (independent.co.uk)
3. image-20170331-16266-1gmqa09.jpg (1356×668) (theconversation.com)
4. Gombe-stream-national-park.jpeg (2560×1700) (mistersafari.com)
5. OIP.80so2-xzE3Uq4UAHEeE5XAHaEK (474×266) (bing.com)
6. 201244125249002-2012-05MargShipmanFD.jpg (424×500) (americanscientist.org)

Next week, we go from looking at apposable thumbs to trying to stay clear of Cuba’s fiercest resident. And if you want to see more amazing animals and plants, please check out the Oddity Arkive or past issues. And if you want even more animals, please check out the dearly departed Impurest Cheese’s Guide to Animals, which can be found here or on the blog of the greatest of apes, @ficopedia.

If you still have a yearning for learning, please check out the master list of Mr Monster’s Martial Arts Journey.

I’m back, and I need to say a big thank you for @cbishop and @arctika for helming this boat while I’m out and about. If you want to request an issue on an amazing animal, fabulous fungus, perplexing plant or awesome paleofauna, don’t hesitate to leave a request in the comments.

__________________________

Oddity Ark #99 (#279)

Domain: Eukaryota

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Insecta

Order: Coleoptera

Family: Coccinellidae

Genus: Coccinella

Species: septampunctata

Related Species: The seven spotted ladybird is one of over ninety species within the genus Coccinellia known collectively as ladybird beetles (1).

Range: The seven-spotted ladybird is found across northern Asia and Europe, from the Korean Peninsula in the east, to the United Kingdom in the west.

IUCN Status: The seven-spotted ladybird is currently not listed on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

Red and Black

The seven-spotted ladybird is a small beetle with a carapace length of up to 8mm. Typically the carapace is a dark red, with three black spots on each wing and a seventh spot just behind the thorax in the middle. The seven-spotted ladybird’s carapace is comprised of the forewings and splits vertically when the beetle is ready to take place. While somewhat cumbersome fliers, ladybirds can reach a top speed of 19mph (30kmph) and a maximum cruising altitude of 1,100m (2). While typically solitary seven-spotted ladybirds may swarm in warm weather, with populations occasionally reaching plague proportions, such as during the exceptionally warm and dry summer of 1976 in the United Kingdom. Older ladybirds occasionally tint yellow on the head, due to a process known as ladybird taint, which can spread onto surfaces that the beetles aggregate on (3).

Seven-spotted ladybirds are carnivorous, primarily feeding upon aphids, scale insects and other small insects. Seven-spotted ladybirds are predated upon by lacewing larvae and insectivorous birds, although the aposematic colouration of red and black advertises the beetles foul taste. When disturbed, ladybirds auto-haemorrhage toxic foul-smelling alkaloids from the joints on the legs to deter predators even further. Due to the toxic nature of the ladybird, other invertebrates such as ladybird spiders (Eresus species) mimic the colourations of ladybirds, despite having no toxins themselves to reduce their own predation (4).

Seven-spotted ladybirds lay their eggs near potential larval food sources, so the flightless larvae do not have to travel far to find prey. Like the adults, larval seven-spotted ladybird feed on aphids and when targeted by predators, ooze toxic secretions from their legs and back. Seven-spotted ladybirds go through four instars, moulting three times before they pupate (5). Upon emerging as an adult, seven-spotted ladybirds live for up to a year, hibernating during cold climates, occasionally in large aggregations in buildings.

Nature’s Most Wanted #22 – Harlequin Ladybird

The harlequin ladybird (Harmonia axyridis) is a small beetle native to eastern Asia, and has spread to Europe and North America, with populations beginning to become established in South America and Africa. Harlequin ladybirds have multiple carapace and spot colours and multiple spot patterns. Harlequin ladybirds gather in larger aggregations then other ladybird species and are more likely to enter human habitation. Harlequin ladybirds feed on plant predators such as aphids and were introduced to Europe and North America to control the populations but quickly expanded from the farms they were introduced to into neighbouring areas.

Where harlequin ladybird populations explode, native ladybird populations decline as they are outcompeted by the introduced harlequin ladybirds (6). Where they gather in large aggregations harlequin ladybirds can stain surfaces and crops, causing contamination of grapes resulting in the alteration of the taste of the wine produced (7). The main impact harlequin ladybirds is the spread of microsporidan parasites, such as Wolbachia, to native ladybird populations. While the harlequin ladybird is immune to the impact of these parasites, native ladybirds are impacted, and causes male larvae to develop into adult female beetles. While ladybirds are able to reproduce by parthenogenesis, the lack of genetic diversity makes native species more susceptible to disease.

Multiple control methods for harlequin ladybirds are utilised, primarily by the wine industry to control population. Control methods include trapping, insecticide spraying and removal of ladybirds, with the sealing of buildings in areas where large aggregations occur. Studies have shown that the alkaloids created by the harlequin ladybird contain an antimicrobial chemical called harmonine, with early tests suggest that certain chemicals may inhibit the growth of Plasmodium falciparum, the protozoan that causes malaria in humans (8).

References

1. www.arkive.com

2. Jeffries, D. L.; Chapman, J; Roy, H. E.; Humphries, S; Harrington, R; Brown, P. M. J.; Lawson Handley, L-J (2013). "Characteristics and drivers of high-altitude ladybird flight: Insights from vertical-looking entomological radar". PLOS ONE. 8 (12)

3. Pickering, Gary J.; Botezatu, Andreea (2021). "A Review of Ladybug Taint in Wine: Origins, Prevention, and Remediation". Molecules. 26 (14): 4341

4. Raška, J; Pekár, S (2018). "Do ladybird spiders really mimic ladybird beetles?". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 126 (1): 168–177

5. Majerus, Michael E. N. (2003). "Ladybugs". In Resh, Vincent H.; Cardé, Ring T. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Insects. Academic Press. pp. 618–622

6. Russell F. Mizell III (2007). "Impact of Harmonia axyridis (Coleoptera: Coccinellidea) on native arthropod predators on pecan and crape myrtle" (PDF). Florida Entomologist. 90 (3): 524–536

7. Gary Pickering; James Lin; Roland Riesen; Andrew Reynolds; Ian Brindle; George Soleas (January 2004). "Influence of Harmonia axyridis on the sensory properties of white and red wine". American Journal of Enology and Viticulture. 55 (2): 153–159

8. Christian Rene Röhrich; Che Julius Ngwa; Jochen Wiesner; Henrike Schmidtberg; Thomas Degenkolb; Christian Kollewe; Rainer Fischer; Gabriele Pradel; Andreas Vilcinskas (2011). "Harmonine, a defence compound from the harlequin ladybird, inhibits mycobacterial growth and demonstrates multi-stage antimalarial activity". Biology Letters. 8 (2): 308–311

Picture Credits

1. R.d21e1d2bf91ed67fc0d698da613af636 (885×941) (bing.com)

2. large.jpg (1024×731) (inaturalist-open-data.s3.amazonaws.com)

3. R.4e9c1d9a7c09302b266d3376a24586b1 (905×800) (bing.com)

4. OIP.FMDa15As17GTc7qy6-_WNQHaF1 (474×373) (bing.com)

And that’s the last stop before reaching one-hundred issues, next week we have a big issue to celebrate reaching three figures. And if you want to see more amazing animals and plants, please check out the Oddity Arkive or past issues. And if you want even more animals, please check out dearly departed Impurest Cheese’s Guide to Animals which can be found here, or on the blog of @ficopedia clearly more of a beetle than a Beatle.

If you still have a yearning for learning, please check out the master list of Mr Monster’s Martial Arts Journey.

This issue is a ripper! No other pretext. If you want to request an issue on an amazing animal, fabulous fungus, perplexing plant or awesome paleofauna, don’t hesitate to leave a request in the comments.

__________________________

Oddity Ark #96 (#276)

Domain: Eukaryota

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Arthropoda

[Clade]*: Scierophorata

Order: Eurypteridia

Family: Pterygotidae

Genus: Pterygotus

Species: anglicus

Related Species: Pterygotus anglicus is one of seventeen species within the genus Pterygotus. All these species and more are colloquially known as eurypterids or sea scorpions (1).

Range: Remains of Pterygotus anglicus come predominantly from coastal marine deposits from the Silurian and Devonian Periods, between 443 and 358 million years ago.

IUCN Status: All eurypterids would be classified as ‘Extinct’ by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

Sea Scorpio

Pterygotus anglicus was among not only the largest members of the genus Pterygotus, but all the eurypterids, reaching a body length of 1.6 meters. While dubbed a sea scorpion, Pterygotus was not a true scorpion, are chelicerates, a clade that includes modern arachnids, as well as horseshoe crabs and sea spiders. In addition to not being a scorpion, Pterygotus was able to migrate into freshwater deposits into addition to marine ones. An active swimmer, Pterygotus used the enlarged wing like pair of legs to swim through the water, likely only descending to the seabed to rest and consume its prey. The eyes of Pterygotus are large and offer the sea scorpion stereoscopic vision and were likely primed to operate in low light conditions and detect movement (2).

Pterygotus anglicus was likely a pursuit predator that hunted prey within the water column. Prey items were seized by the large raptorial claws and were shredded by the sea scorpions mouth parts into easily digestible parts. Prey species probably included every other species within its ecosystem including the spiny shark Climatius, the benthic eurypterid Stylonurus and the jawless fish Mesacanthus (3). Fossils from armoured fish predated with puncture marks suggests that Pterygotis was able to feed on armoured prey in addition to soft bodied targets. Due to its large size, Pterygotus probably had not predators of its own, save for larger members of its own species.

The genus Pterygotus went extinct at the end of the Devonian Period, and the large predatory sea scorpions underwent an extinction event in the Devonian, as fish, most notably the placoderms, developed armour plating and shearing bone serrations on their jaws to assist in feeding on hard shelled prey (4). Those eurypterids that persisted into the Carboniferous and Permian Periods generally consisted of benthic scavengers and predators, wither the entire clade becoming extinct at the end of the Permian during the mass extinction referred to as ‘The Great Dying’.

Five Oversized Extinct Arthropods

As large as Pterygotus was, the largest eurypterid Jaekelopterus was much larger, reaching a body length of 2.5m.

A true scorpion, albeit an aquatic genus, Brontoscorpio grew up to a meter in length. This genus was thought to have some terrestrial locomotion, likely to escape predation from euyrpterids such as Pterygotus (5).

The griffin fly Meganeura had a wingspan of 75cm, making it the largest flying insect. Despite their large size, they probably weighed less than extant beetle species such as the Goliath beetle (Goliathus goliathus).

The largest arthropod to ever exist was Arthroplura, a prehistoric millipede that reached 2.6m in length, 50cm wide and reached a mass of 50kg (6). Despite its large size Arthroplura was likely a herbivore.

While small in comparison to the other species, the ant Titanomyrma has a wingspan of 15cm (7). This species also lived more recently during Eocene Period, after the Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction event.

References

1. www.arkive.com

2. McCoy, Victoria E.; Lamsdell, James C.; Poschmann, Markus; Anderson, Ross P.; Briggs, Derek E. G. (2015). "All the better to see you with: eyes and claws reveal the evolution of divergent ecological roles in giant pterygotid eurypterids". Biology Letters. 11 (8):

3. The Old Red Sandstone of Great Britain (Geological Conservation Review Series No. 31) | JNCC Resource Hub". hub.jncc.gov.uk.

4. Lamsdell, James C.; Braddy, Simon J. (2009). "Cope's Rule and Romer's theory: patterns of diversity and gigantism in eurypterids and Palaeozoic vertebrates". Biology Letters. 6 (2): 265–269

5. Kjellesvig-Waering, Erik N. (1972). "Brontoscorpio anglicus: a gigantic Lower Paleozoic scorpion from central England". Journal of Paleontology. 46 (1): 39–42

6. Martino, Ronald L.; Greb, Stephen F. (2009). "Walking trails of the giant terrestrial arthropod Arthropleura from the Upper Carboniferous of Kentucky". Journal of Paleontology. 83 (1): 140–146

7. S. Bruce Archibald; Kirk R. Johnson; Rolf W. Mathewes & David R. Greenwood (2011). "Intercontinental dispersal of giant thermophilic ants across the Arctic during early Eocene hyperthermals" (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 278 (1725): 3679–3686

Picture Credits

1. R.6af81a141a3525ba66dca90b781417ae (1300×731) (bing.com)

2. Photograph taken by Sundown89. Please ask permission before using.

3. a83b891ff0cb9e61cec40245fd6abb8e.jpg (1109×796) (pinimg.com)

4. Arthropleura-01.jpg (900×600) (mundoprehistorico.com)

5. OIP.WvFww5_k0qprBx3iocDrFQHaFm (474×358) (bing.com)

That’s it for me, next week @cbishop: is temporarily taking the helm while I’m away from my computer, and the week after @arctika: will be hosting an issue. A big thank you to you both, it is most appreciated.

And if you want to see more amazing animals and plants, please check out the Oddity Arkive or past issues. And if you want even more animals, please check out dearly departed Impurest Cheese’s Guide to Animals which can be found here, or on the blog of the covert oviraptorus @ficopedia.

If you still have a yearning for learning, please check out the master list of Mr Monster’s Martial Arts Journey.

This is a short post, apologies for that.

Part 6 of this blog was meant to be the annual update of where I am with the development of the Invictia Project, but unfortunately I have bad news. The web site I was planning to post the demo and the completed project on, Relic Castle, received a DMCA takedown notice from a third party on behalf of the Pokémon Company. While I'm not sure if other projects were making money on the Site, from what I saw they weren't, the Invictia Project were going to be free to use, there was no plan in making money of it, in fact I've sunk a lot of money into requesting art for spites as well as over a year's worth of time into the project.

As such my motivation has taken a hit, not just because of the lack of resources, but also the threat of a DMCA takedown aimed at me if I did post it in the future. I don't know what the future holds for the project, while I love Pokemon, love Imp's kooky designs for new mons and have really enjoyed learning how to make a game but this news has made me question where I'm heading next.

I apologise for the disappointing news, and will likely share some of the cool stuff Imp and later myself came up with, even if the game doesn't go ahead. Any ideas would be appreciated, and once again sorry for letting you all down.

Your Easter eggs are at risk, this is a warning keep them safe from this week’s issue. And if you want to request an issue on an amazing animal, fabulous fungus, perplexing plant or awesome paleofauna, don’t hesitate to leave a request in the comments.

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Oddity Ark #95 (#275)

Domain: Eukaryota

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Reptilia

Order: Squamata

Family: Colubridae

Genus: Dasypeltis

Species: scabra

Related Species: The rhombic egg-eating snake is one of the eighteen species of egg-eating snakes in the genus Dasypeltis (1).

Range: The rhombic egg-eating snake is found throughout habitats in sub-Saharan Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, with the exception of deserts and closed canopy forests.

IUCN Status: The rhombic egg-eating snake is classified as ‘Least Concern’ by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

Egg Raider

The rhombic egg-eating snake is a colubrid snake that reaches a length of up to 1.2m long. The scales are keeled giving the skin of snake a jagged or saw edge like appearance and has a distinct rhombic pattern of spots along its back. Rhombic egg-eating snakes are skilled climbers and navigate the world through its sense of smell, gathering a wide range of scent particles on the tips of its forked tongue and flicked onto the Jacobson’s organ at the roof of the mouth (2). Rhombic egg-eating snakes are primarily nocturnal, spending the early and late part of the day basking, while spending the hottest part of the day underground.

Rhombic egg-eating snakes feed exclusively on bird eggs, unhinging their jaws and ballooning their necks to facilitate consumption. Unlike other snakes, egg-eating snakes have no teeth, instead relying on ridges in the mouth to walk the egg into the neck area. Once located in the snake’s neck, specialised spurs on the vertebrae puncture the shell, allowing the egg-eating snake to crush the egg allowing it to drain the fluid out (3). Once drained, the shell is regurgitated by the egg-eating snake and abandoned. If targeted by a predator, the rhombic egg-eating snake rubs its coils together creating a hissing buzzing sound that sounds like the warning buzz of the saw scaled viper withing the genus Echis (4).

Well, what a threat to my eggs still, it could be worse…your eggs could already be infected…

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Oddity Ark #95 (#275)

Domain: Eukaryota

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Insecta

Order: Coleoptera

Family: Silphidae

Genus: Nicrophorus

Species: pustulatus

Related Species: The blistered burying beetle is one of over sixty beetles known collectively as burying or sexton beetles (5).

Range: Blistered burying beetles are found in the temperate and sub-tropical regions of Canada and the United States east of the Rockies

IUCN Status: The blistered burying beetle’s conservation status is not currently listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

Bring out your dead…or I’ll eat your eggs!

Blistered burying beetles are medium sized beetles, reaching 2cm in length and have small orange spots on the thorax and the rear of the abdomen. Like most sexton beetle, the blistered burying beetles are primarily detritivores, location carrion with their club shaped antennae. Upon finding carrion, typically a small mammals or bird, the beetle drags the corpse back to its burrow, laying its eggs on the body. While other sexton beetles possess a suite of antimicrobial chemicals in their saliva, the blistered burying beetle lacks these (6), and as such while this species can raise its larvae on carrion, it has a higher success rate on other food sources.

Female blistered burying beetles are known to enter the nests of reptiles, primarily black rat snakes (Pantherophis obsoletus) and fox snakes (Pantherophis vulpinus). Snakes that are communal nesters are more readily targeted then those who nest on their own, likely because they provide additional resources for additional egg laying (7). The beetle oviposits her eggs onto the shell of a snake egg, with the larvae burrowing into the host egg, where the larvae feeds on the developing embryo until it is ready to pupate. While adult blistered burying beetles bury carrion, eggs are typically left in situ.

References

1. www.arkive.com

2. Baeckens S, Van Damme R, Cooper WE (March 2017). "How phylogeny and foraging ecology drive the level of chemosensory exploration in lizards and snakes". Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 30 (3): 627–640.

3. Branch, Bill (2004). Field Guide to Snakes and other Reptiles of Southern Africa. Third Revised edition, Second impression. Sanibel Island, Florida: Ralph Curtis Books. 399 pp

4. Gans, Carl; Richmond, Neil D. (1957). "Warning Behavior in Snakes of the Genus Dasypeltis". Copeia 1957 (4): 269-274

5. www.arkive.com

6. Hoback, W. Wyatt; Bishop, Andrew A.; Kroemer, Jeremy; Scalzitti, Joanne; Shaffer, Julie J. (April 2004). "Differences Among Antimicrobial Properties of Carrion Beetle Secretions Reflect Phylogeny and Ecology". Journal of Chemical Ecology. 30 (4): 719–729.

7. Smith, G., Trumbo, S.T., Sikes, D.S., Scott, M.P. and Smith, R.L. (2007), Host shift by the burying beetle, Nicrophorus pustulatus, a parasitoid of snake eggs. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 20: 2389-2399.

Picture Credits

1. Rhombic_Egg-eater_MAIN_web-1.jpg (800×800) (africansnakebiteinstitute.com)

2. egg-eating-snake-eating-egg-1280x720.jpg (1280×720) (exopetguides.com)

3. BZXL9ZMLUZ5L9Z7LJHPHYHGL3HUHLRMLZRNHAZ7L3HMLLRXLYHMLYHXLYHNHJH9HDH0LBZWHUZUHZR8H.jpg (560×560) (bugguide.net)

4. Nicrophorus-pustulatus-female-with-a-small-brood-five-third-instar-larvae-on-a-single.png (374×820) (researchgate.net)

Well that’s the Easter issue, next week we have something (incredibly) nasty from the past. And if you want to see more amazing animals and plants, please check out the Oddity Arkive or past issues. And if you want even more animals, please check out dearly departed Impurest Cheese’s Guide to Animals which can be found here, or on the blog of the covert oviraptorus @ficopedia.

If you still have a yearning for learning, please check out the master list of Mr Monster’s Martial Arts Journey.